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<ul><li> 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> The first edition of this book was written by J. George Wills (Marcel Dekker, 1980). ISBN: 0-8247-0574-2 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Headquarters Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 tel: 212-696-9000; fax: 212-685-4540 Eastern Hemisphere Distribution Marcel Dekker AG Hutgasse 4, Postfach 812, CH-4001 Basel, Switzerland tel: 41-61-261-8482; fax: 41-61-261-8896 World Wide Web http://www.dekker.com The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the headquarters address above. Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. The Exxon, Esso, Mobil, and ExxonMobil logos are trademarks of Exxon Mobil Corporation. The terms Mobil SHC 600, Mobil DTE 20, and Mobil EAL 224H are trademarks or trade names of Exxon Mobil Corporation or its affiliated companies. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> Preface Lubrication and the knowledge of lubricants not only are subjects of interest to all of us but they are also critical to the cost effective operation and reliability of machinery that is part of our daily lives. Our world, and exploration of regions beyond our world, depends on mechanical devices that require lubricating films. Whether in our homes or at work, whether knowingly or unknowingly, we all need lubricants and some knowledge of lubrica- tion. Fishing reels, vacuum cleaners, and lawn mowers are among the devices that require lubrication. The millions of automobiles, buses, airplanes, and trains depend on lubrication for operation, and it must be effective lubrication for dependability, safety, and minimiza- tion of environmental impact. Many changes in the field of lubrication have occurred since the first edition of Lubrication Fundamentals was published more than 20 years ago. Today intricate and complex machines are used to make paper products; huge rolling mills turn out metal ingots and sheets; metalworking machines produce close-tolerance parts; and special machinery is used to manufacture cement, rubber, and plastic products. New metallurgy, new processes, and never before used materials are often part of these machines that require lubrication. The newer machinery designs have taken advantage of these as well as other technologies, which often involve computers to assist in producing ultra-high precision parts at produc- tion rates that were once only dreamed of. These advances have led to faster machine speeds, greater load-handling capability, higher machine temperatures, smaller capacity lubricant reservoirs, and less frequent lubrication application up to and including fill-for- life lubrication. As a result, there has been an explosion in both higher performance and specialty application oils and greases. The impact of these lubricants on our natural environment has also been a driver for new lubricant technology. This second edition of Lubrication Fundamentals builds upon the machinery basics discussed in the first edition, much of which is still applicable today. The second edition also addresses many of the new lubricant technologies that were introduced or improved upon in the last 20 years to meet the needs of modern machinery. As we progress through this century, lubricant suppliers will be faced with many challenges. Critical activities Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> along the lubricant value chain that are impacted by technology include new lubrication requirements, petroleum crude selection, base stock manufacture, product formulation and evaluation, lubricant application, and environmental stewardship. These will be exciting times for industry, especially for those participating in the quest to develop the new lubri- cant molecule for the future. D. M. Pirro A. A. Wessol ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Lubrication Fundamentals: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, like all technical pub- lications of this magnitude, is not the work of one or two people. It is the combined effort of hundreds, even thousands, of engineers, designers, chemists, physicists, writers, and artiststhe compendium of a broad spectrum of talent working over a long period of time. The field of lubrication fundamentals starts with the scientists who study the basic interaction of oil films with bearings, gears, and cams under various stresses and loads. It then takes the unique cooperation that exists between the machine designer and equipment builders, on one side, and the lubricant formulators and suppliers, on the other, along with the cooperation that takes place in the many associations such as STLE, SAE, ACEA, ASTM, ISO, DIN, NLGI, AGMA, and API, to name but a few. It culminates in the mating of superior lubricants properly applied with the requirements of the most efficient machines operating today. The lubricants industry is most grateful to lubrication pioneers such as J. George Wills, the author of the first edition. More than 20 years ago, Wills, an acknowledged expert in the field of lubrication in the nuclear power industry, identified the need for a practical resource on lubrication. He developed a vision, secured the support and resources to undertake such a monumental effort, and then dedicated the effort to turn his vision into reality. We are privileged to be able to build upon this effort and share the many technological advances in industry. It would be impossible to list the host of people who have helped to put this second edition together. The book compiles the many technical publications of Exxon Mobil Corporation and the cooperative offerings of the foremost international equipment builders. Impossible though it may be to acknowledge the contributions of everyone, the following must be singled out for thanks: Our lubricant business leaders at ExxonMobilJohn Lyon, Jeff Webster, Don Sala- mack, J. Ian Davidson, and George Siragusafirst for their acceptance of the idea and then for their encouragement to complete the project The following engineers, researchers, and technologists at ExxonMobil, who made significant contributions to this editionW. Russ Murphy, S. Levi Pearson, Mar- cia Rogers, Charles Baker, Mary McGuiness, Tim McCrory, John Doner, Betsey Varney, Carl Gerster, and Elena Portoles The many original equipment manufacturers we have worked with for many years, for sharing their knowledge and technology The many other marketers, engineers, formulators, and researchers (past and present) from Mobil and ExxonMobil for their contributions and comments Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> Contents Preface 1 Introduction I. Premodern History of Petroleum II. Petroleum in North America III. Development of Lubricants IV. Future Prospects 2 Refining Processes and Lubricant Base Stocks I. Crude Oil II. Refining III. Lubricant Base Stocks IV. Lube Refining Processes V. Lubricating Base Stock Processing 3 Lubricating Oils I. Additives II. Physical and Chemical Characteristics III. Evaluation and Performance Tests IV. Engine Tests for Oil Performance V. Automotive Gear Lubricants VI. Automatic Transmission Fluids 4 Lubricating Greases I. Why Greases Are Used II. Composition of Grease Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> III. Manufacture of Grease IV. Grease Characteristics V. Evaluation and Performance Tests 5 Synthetic Lubricants I. Synthesized Hydrocarbon Fluids II. Organic Esters III. Polyglycols IV. Phosphate Esters V. Other Synthetic Lubricating Fluids 6 Environmental Lubricants I. Environmental Considerations II. Definitions and Test Procedures III. Base Materials IV. Product Selection Process V. Converting to EA Lubricants 7 Hydraulics I. Principles II. System Components III. Controlling Pressure and Flow IV. Actuators V. Hydraulic Drives VI. Oil Reservoirs VII. Oil Qualities Required by Hydraulic Systems VIII. Special Characteristics in Hydraulic Fluids IX. Hydraulic System Maintenance 8 Lubricating Films and Machine Elements: Bearings, Slides, Ways, Gears, Couplings, Chains, Wire Rope I. Types of Lubricating Film II. Plain Bearings III. Rolling Element Bearings IV. Slides, Guides, and Ways V. Gears VI. Lubricant Characteristics for Enclosed Gears VII. AGMA Specifications for Lubricants for Open Gearing VIII. Cylinders IX. Flexible Couplings X. Drive Chains XI. Cams and Cam Followers XII. Wire Ropes 9 Lubricant Application I. All-Loss Methods II. Reuse Methods Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> III. Other Reuse Methods IV. Centralized Application Systems 10 Internal Combustion Engines I. Design and Construction Considerations II. Fuel and Combustion Considerations III. Operating Considerations IV. Maintenance Considerations V. Engine Oil Characteristics VI. Oil Recommendations by Field of Engine Use 11 Stationary Gas Turbines I. Principles of Gas Turbines II. Jet Engines for Industrial Use III. Gas Turbine Applications IV. Lubrication of Gas Turbines 12 Steam Turbines I. Steam Turbine Operation II. Turbine Control Systems III. Lubricated Components 13 Hydraulic Turbines I. Turbine Types II. Lubricated Parts III. Lubricant Recommendations 14 Nuclear Reactors and Power Generation I. Reactor Types II. Radiation Effects on Petroleum Products III. Lubrication Recommendations 15 Automotive Chassis Components I. Suspension and Steering Linkages II. Steering Gear III. Wheel Bearings IV. Brake Systems V. Miscellaneous Components 16 Automotive Transmissions and Drive Trains I. Clutches II. Transmissions III. Drive Shafts and Universal Joints IV. Transaxles Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> V. Other Gear Cases VI. Automotive Gear Lubricants VII. Torque Converter and Automatic Transmission Fluids VIII. Multipurpose Tractor Fluids 17 Compressors I. Reciprocating Air and Gas Compressors II. Rotary Compressors III. Dynamic Compressors IV. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Compressors 18 Handling, Storing, and Dispensing Lubricants I. Handling II. Storing III. Dispensing 19 In-Plant Handling and Purification for Lubricant Conservation I. Overview of In-Plant Handling II. Product Selection III. In-Service Handling IV. In-Service Purification V. Purification Methods VI. Reclamation and Re-Refining of Lubricating Oils VII. Waste Collection and Routing VIII. Final Disposal Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> 1 Introduction Petroleum is one of the naturally occurring hydrocarbons that frequently include natural gas, natural bitumen, and natural wax. The name petroleum is derived from the Latin petra (rock) and oleum (oil). According to the most generally accepted theory today, petroleum was formed by the decomposition of organic refuse, aided by high temperatures and pressures, over a vast period of geological time. I. PREMODERN HISTORY OF PETROLEUM Although petroleum occurs, as its name indicates, among rocks in the earth, it sometimes seeps to the surface through fissures or is exposed by erosion. The existence of petroleum was known to primitive man, since surface seepage, often sticky and thick, was obvious to anyone passing by. Prehistoric animals were sometimes mired in it, but few human bones have been recovered from these tar pits. Early man evidently knew enough about the danger of surface seepage to avoid it. The first actual use of petroleum seems to have been in Egypt, which imported bitumen, probably from Greece, for use in embalming. The Egyptians believed that the spirit remained immortal if the body was preserved. About the year 450 B.C., Herodotus, the father of history, described the pits of Kir ab ur Susiana as follows: At Ardericca is a well which produces three different substances, for asphalt, salt and oil are drawn up from it in the following manner. It is pumped up by means of a swipe; and, instead of a bucket, half a wine skin is attached to it. Having dipped down with this, a man draws it up and then pours the contents into a reservoir, and being poured from this into another, it assumes these different forms: the asphalt and salt immediately become solid, and the liquid oil is collected. The Persians call it Phadinance; it is black and emits a strong odor. Pliny, the historian, and Dioscorides Pedanius, the Greek botanist, both mention Sicilian oil, from the island of Sicily, which was burned for illumination as early as the beginning of the Common Era. Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved. 113.22.81.34 downloaded 0824705742.pdf at Sat Apr 14 14:36:50 ICT 2012 </li> <li> The Scriptures contain many references to petroleum, in addition to the well-known story of Moses, who as an infant was set afloat on the river in a little boat of reeds waterproofed with pitch, and was found by Pharaohs daughter. Some of these biblical references include the following: Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch. (Genesis VI.14) And they had brick for stone, and slime (bitumen) had they for mortar. (Building the Tower of Babel, Genesis XI.3) And the Vale of Siddim was full of slime (bitumen) pits; and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled, and fell there. . . . (Genesis XIV.10) Other references are found in Strabo, Josephus, Diodorus Siculus, and Plutarch, and in more recent times much evidence has accumulated that petroleum was known in almost every part of the world. Marco Polo, the Venetian travele..</li></ul>
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